Spotted Seahorse

In general, incidental capture in shrimp trawl fisheries and habitat degradation and exploitation are the main threats to this species. H. kuda is susceptible to incidental catch from trawling in many locations throughout its range (Giles et al. 2006, Perry et al. 2010). In China, Cambodia and the Republic of Korea seahorses are caught as bycatch although no information exists on volumes (UNEP-WCMC 2012b). Declines in Thailand of seahorse catches are attributed to overfishing, as well as an increasing number of fishers, trawling, and habitat destruction (Perry et al. 2010).

Hippocampus kuda is caught and traded for traditional medicines, aquaria and curios throughout its range (Perry et al. 2010). Trade in this species is extensive with over 2 million individuals traded per annum (Evanson et al. 2011, UNEP-WCMC 2012a).

Hippocampus kuda is also threatened by damage to its habitats (Vincent et al. 2011) from coastal development and destructive fishing practices. Land-based activities such as coastal construction can diminish seagrass beds and mangroves while leading to increased pollution and siltation in surrounding marine waters. For example, in Malaysia Hippocampus kuda numbers declined due to an extensive port development around the Pulai Estuary that destroyed large tracts of seagrass meadow (Vincent et al. 2011). Fishing methods such as trawling result in substantial damage to seagrass beds globally, and especially in the Indo-Pacific (Short et al. 2011). The decline in and fragmentation of the species’ habitats throughout its range indicates possible declines in populations in addition to those caused by fisheries.

All seahorse species have vital parental care, and many species studied to date have high site fidelity (Perante et al. 2002, Vincent et al. 2005), highly structured social behaviour (Vincent and Sadler 1995), and relatively sparse distributions (Lourie et al. 1999). These life history parameters often make species susceptible to exploitation as has been demonstrated for a number of species, including seahorses (Jennings et al. 1998, Foster and Vincent 2004). Although seahorses also have some traits, such as small body size, fast growth and high fecundity, that may confer resilience to exploitation pressures (Morgan 2007),

Due to the mode of spawning exhibited by Hippocampus kuda (ovoviviparous brood pouch male parental care), fecundityis comparatively low compared to non-brood pouch spawning fishes and therefore its capacity for population growth is more limited than other species (Brown et al. 2008). As a result of the lack of broadcast spawning of pelagic eggs, dispersal of potential recruits is limited. Additionally, given the limited swimming abilities of seahorses, it is highly unlikely that rescue effects would occur from adjacent populations.